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Department of Pediatrics, Darby Children Research Institute, Medical University of South Carolina Charleston, South Carolina (A.S.P., M.K.P.,I.S.); and Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Ralph H. Johnson V. A. Medical Center, Charleston, South Carolina (A.K.S.)
Received December 11, 2007; accepted January 31, 2008
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Abstract |
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3.0) when treated with lovastatin and aforementioned agents validated these in vitro findings. Together, these data provide unprecedented evidence that—like immune cells—geranylgeranyl-pyrophosphate depletion and thus inhibition of Rho family functions in glial cells by lovastatin promotes myelin repair in ameliorating EAE.
). The involvement of various cells types and metabolites in MS pathology suggests that myelin repair (remyelination) can occur in the acute inflammatory phase when damage may be reversed, but it is impaired in the later stages (Zamvil and Steinman, 2003). Remyelination has been attributed to recruitment and differentiation of OL progenitors rather than to new process formation by previously myelinating OLs (Franklin, 2002). Current Food and Drug Administration-approved treatments for MS specifically target the inflammatory phase of the disease with the ultimate goal of reducing disease progression and limiting long-term disability (Rizvi and Agius, 2004). However, these treatments often do not target the neurodegenerative phase of the disease, including impaired remyelination. Two major probable causes of remyelination failure in MS lesions are the shortage or impaired recruitment of OL-progenitors (OPs) to areas of active demyelination and the presence of inhibitory proteins within the lesion, which limit the differentiation of late OPs into myelin-forming OLs (Franklin, 2002).
The most compelling approaches to induce normal remyelination in MS are either by induction of endogenous OPs or by transplantation of exogenous neural stem cells (Keilhoff et al., 2006). It is now well accepted that endogenous OPs can be induced for remyelination in demyelinated lesions. In fact, OPs are reported to be present in some of the chronic MS lesions (Wolswijk, 2000), but they seem to be quiescent. Moreover, new OPs produced within the subventricular zone from neuronal stem cells can migrate to participate in remyelination (Franklin and Blakemore, 1995). Transplantation of neural stem cells induced remyelination in the central nervous system (CNS) of animal models of acute demyelination (Cao et al., 2002). These cell-based therapies, however, differ in their ability to remyelinate CNS axons, and they are susceptible to graft rejection, the potential to form tumors and teratomas, the ability to modify the injury site, and a capacity for promoting functional recovery.
Food and Drug Administration-approved drugs such as copaxone and interferon-β are known to target the inflammatory phase of MS (Duda et al., 2000; Kraus et al., 2004), but their effects in neuroregeneration are not evident or are unknown. We and others have reported that statins can target the inflammatory phase of MS (Youssef et al., 2002; Greenwood et al., 2003; Paintlia et al., 2004). In addition, we documented that lovastatin impedes demyelination and augments myelin repair (remyelination) via preserving OPs in an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of MS (Paintlia et al., 2005). Likewise, another lipophilic statin, simvastatin, has recently been shown to modulate OL process dynamics and survival via regulating isoprenoid biosynthesis (Miron et al., 2007). Statins act by inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase, the rate-limiting enzyme in endogenous cholesterol biosynthesis that blocks the synthesis of mevalonic acid. Besides reducing cholesterol biosynthesis, inhibition of mevalonate by statins also leads to a reduction in the synthesis of isoprenoids [i.e., farnesyl-pyrophosphate (PP) and geranylgeranyl-PP (Alegret and Silvestre, 2006)]. These intermediates are involved in the post-translational isoprenylation of several proteins (e.g., Ras, Rho, and Rac) that modulate a variety of cellular processes, including cellular signaling, proliferation, and differentiation (Nobes and Hall, 1995). In this study, we investigated the underlying mechanism of lovastatin-induced OP survival and induction of myelin repair/remyelination in ameliorating EAE using in vitro and in vivo approaches. Our findings revealed that the inhibition of the geranylgeranyl-PP arm of the mevalonate pathway in glial cells by lovastatin is critical for induction of myelin repair in improving EAE animals.
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Materials and Methods |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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, TNF-
, and IL-1β proteins were purchased from R&D Systems (Minneapolis, MN). Rabbit anti-RhoA, anti-cdc42/Rac1, and anti-Ras antibodies were purchased from Cell Signaling Technology Inc. (Danvers, MA). Rabbit anti-NG2 chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (NG2), mouse anti-oligodendrocyte markers (i.e., O4), and rabbit anti-β-actin antibodies were purchased from Millipore Bioscience Research Reagents (Billerica, MA). The murine anti-mouse myelin basic protein (MBP; clone 1: 129-138) antibodies were from Serotec (Raleigh, NC). Rabbit anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) antibodies were purchased from Dako North America, Inc. (Carpenteria, CA), and anti-ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) antibodies were purchased from Genetex Inc. (San Antonio, TX). Mouse IgG and rabbit polyclonal IgG (control primary antibodies) and secondary antibodies such as Texas Red-X-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG (for NG2 and MBP) and fluorescein (FITC)-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG (for GFAP and O4) were from Vector Laboratories (Burlingame, CA). Enhanced chemiluminescence-detecting reagents and nitrocellulose membranes were purchased from GE Healthcare (Chalfont St. Giles, Buckinghamshire, UK).
Treatment of Mixed Glial Cell Cultures. Rat cortical glial cell cultures were generated from postnatal day 1 to 2 Sprague-Dawley rat brains (Charles River Laboratories, Inc., Wilmington, MA) as described previously (Paintlia et al., 2005). Primary OPs, microglia and astrocytes were purified using standard methods as described previously (Paintlia et al., 2005). Mixed glial cells were plated on glass chamber slides or in Petri plates precoated with poly-D-lysine at a density of 2 x 105 cells/ml. After 24 h, fresh Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium without fetal bovine serum was changed, and cells were treated with lovastatin, inhibitors, or concurrent treatment with lovastatin and different compounds for another 24 h before stimulation with a cocktail of inflammatory cytokines (Cyt-Mix; TNF-, IL-1β, and IFN-; each 10 ng/ml). Proliferation of OPs was determined at days in vitro (DIV) 3 (NG2+) and DIV5 (late-OPs; O4+) as per treatment with various compounds. For differentiation of developing OPs into myelin-forming OLs, mixed glial cultures at DIV4 (enriched in O4 population of oligodendrocyte lineage) were treated with compounds followed by Cyt-Mix exposure, and then they were analyzed at DIV7 (MBP).
Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting Analysis. Mixed glial cells or purified OPs were harvested after treatment by incubation in trypsin-EDTA (1x) solution (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). Cells were washed and resuspended in PBS containing 3% bovine serum albumin, and then they were incubated with 10 µg/ml nonimmune mouse IgG for 15 min. After washing, cells were incubated with 2 µg/ml mouse anti-NG2+-IgG or anti-O4+ IgM and/or anti-MBP antibodies diluted 1:100 in PBS containing 3% bovine serum albumin at 4°C for 30 min. After washing, cells were incubated at 4°C for 30 min with phosphatidylethanolamine-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG (Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc., Santa Cruz, CA) for NG2+ and FITC-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgM (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) for O4+, and MBP diluted at 1:200, and then they were measured in a FL-1 channel (530 ± 15-nm band pass filter). Cells were washed before analysis on a FACScalibur flow cytometer (BD Biosciences, San Jose, CA) operating with the Cell Quest software. Dead cells and debris were excluded from the analysis by gating living cells from size/structure density plots. Data were displayed on a logarithmic scale with increasing fluorescence intensity (data not shown). Each histogram plot was recorded for at least 10,000 gated events. Percentage of positive cells was plotted in each group.
Collection of Cellular Cytosolic and Membranal Fractions. Cytosolic and membranal fractions of treated cells were collected by standard methods. In brief, cells were harvested after 24-h treatment of purified glial cells with lovastatin and other compounds, including 30 min of Cyt-Mix stimulation wherever indicated, and then they were washed twice in PBS. Next, cells were suspended in permeabilization buffer, containing 20 mM HEPES, pH 7.2, 135 mM KCl, 5 mM NaCO3, 5.6 mM D-glucose, 2 mM ATP, 4 mM MgCl2, 5 mM EGTA, 1.5 mM CaCl2 (corresponding to 40 nM free Ca2+), and 8 µM digitonin, followed by a further incubation period of 10 to 60 min on ice. Afterward, cells were pelleted by centrifugation at 15,000g for 1 min. Supernatant and pellet fractions were used as cytosolic and membranal fractions, respectively, to determine the distribution of Rho and Ras family GTPases using SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and Western blotting methods.
Immunocytochemistry and Immunohistochemistry. For single-label immunocytochemistry, standard methodology was used. In brief, slides were blocked with a serum-PBS solution, and then they were incubated with appropriately diluted primary antibody (1:100) at 4°C overnight followed by washing and incubation with secondary antibodies. For double labeling for immunocytochemistry and immunohistochemistry, slides or sections were incubated simultaneously with both types of primary antibodies after blocking with a serum-PBS solution at 4°C overnight as described above. Then, secondary antibodies for the appropriate marker (anti-IgG conjugated with FITC or anti-IgM conjugated with Texas Red) were used. Slides were also incubated with Texas Red-conjugated IgM and FITC-conjugated IgG without primary antibody as negative controls, and an appropriate mouse IgG and rabbit polyclonal IgG were used as isotype controls. After thorough washings, slides were mounted with aqueous mounting media (Vectashield; Vector Laboratories). Slides were analyzed by immunofluorescence microscopy (Olympus BX-60; Optronics, Goleta, CA) with an Olympus digital camera (Optronics) using a dual-band pass filter. Images were captured and processed using Adobe Photoshop 7.0 (Adobe Systems, Mountain View, CA), and they were adjusted using the brightness and contrast level to enhance image clarity. Total numbers of positive cells/field were determined by manual counting in 10 fields of a slide from similarly treated slides (n = 5) in a blinded manner.
Animals. Female Lewis rats (225-300 g) were purchased from Harlan (Indianapolis, IN), and they were housed in the animal care facility of the Medical University of South Carolina throughout the experiment. They were provided with food and water ad libitum. All experiments were performed according to the National Institutes of Health Guidelines for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals (National Institutes of Health publication number 80-23, revised 1985), and they were approved by the Medical University of South Carolina Animal Care and Use Committee.
EAE Induction and Clinical Evaluation. The procedures used for the induction of EAE have been described previously (Paintlia et al., 2004, 2005). In brief, female rats received a subcutaneous injection in the hind limb footpads of guinea pig MBP (35 µg; Sigma-Aldrich) in 0.1 ml of PBS emulsified in an equal volume of CFA supplemented with 2 mg/ml Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Ra (Difco, Detroit, MI) on days 0 and 7. Immediately thereafter and again 24 h later, rats received pertussis toxin (200 ng i.p.) in 0.1 ml of PBS. Pertussis toxin was administered to animals as per a standardized protocol in our laboratory for induction of EAE (Paintlia et al., 2004). Likewise, control animals received an injection (subcutaneous) of PBS and CFA emulsion in the hind limb footpads on days 0 and 7. Individual animals were observed daily, and clinical scores were assessed by an experimentally blinded investigator on a 0 to 5 scale, with 0, no clinical disease; 1.0, piloerection; 2.0, loss in tail tonicity; 3.0, hind leg paralysis; 4.0, paraplegia; and 5.0, moribund or dead.
In Vivo Drug Treatments. Lovastatin (4 mg/ml) was suspended in 0.8% ethanol/0.6 N NaOH and PBS, adjusted to pH 7.4. Likewise, 5 mg/ml mevalonolactone was suspended in PBS; 5 mg/ml farnesol was suspended in PBS; 0.50 mg/ml GGTI-298 was suspended in ethanol and diluted in PBS; 30 mg/kg L-744,832 was suspended in physiological saline, pH 7.4; and 1 mg/ml hydroxyfasudil was dissolved in 100 µl of dimethyl sulfoxide and diluted in PBS. Drugs were administered i.p. at the specified dose once daily using a 1-ml insulin syringe. A treatment was started when a clinical score of 3.0 [on the 12th day after immunization (dpi)] was reached in EAE animals. Drug treatment was continued to the end of the experiment. EAE animals without drug treatment received an i.p. injection of vehicle (0.8% ethanol in PBS) once daily. Control animals received an i.p. injection of vehicle or drug (drug controls) once daily. One set of animals were sacrificed on peak clinical day (12 dpi), and the remaining animals were kept for 23 dpi, at which time serum and spinal cord (SC) tissues were collected.
Real-Time PCR Analysis. Lumbar SC tissues were carefully processed for RNA isolation. Total RNA was purified using TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's protocol as described previously (Paintlia et al., 2005). Single-stranded cDNA was synthesized from the total RNA from each group of animals using a superscript preamplification system for first-strand cDNA synthesis (Invitrogen) as described previously (Paintlia et al., 2005). Real-time PCR was performed using iCycler iQ real-time PCR detection system (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules CA). The primer sets used were designed and purchased from Integrated DNA Technologies, Inc. (Coralville, IA). The primer sequences are given in Table 1. IQ SYBR Green Supermix was purchased from Bio-Rad Laboratories. Thermal cycling conditions were as follows: activation of iTaq DNA polymerase at 95°C for 10 min, followed by 35 cycles of amplification at 95°C for 30 s and 55-57.5°C for 1 min. The specificity of real-time PCR for each analysis was determined by melting curve analysis of amplified product (PCR machine was programmed for melting curve analysis at the end of each run). Then, normalized expression data were generated by dividing the amount of target gene concentration with the amount of reference gene (GAPDH). The detection threshold was set above the mean baseline fluorescence determined by the first 20 cycles. Amplification reactions in which the fluorescence increased above the threshold were defined as positive. A standard curve for each template was generated using a serial dilution of the template (cDNA). The quantities of target gene expression were normalized to the corresponding GAPDH or 18S rRNA expression in test samples.
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). Autoradiograph of immunoblots was generated using enhanced chemiluminescence detection kits (GE Healthcare).
Analysis of PDGF-β and IGF-1 in Serum Samples by ELISA. Serum samples were collected from animals on 0 day of treatment (12 dpi) and on remission (23 dpi) after treatment with drug. Levels of PDGF-β and IGF-1 were determined in serum by ELISA based assay kits (R&D Systems). Data are computed as protein concentration per milliliter and plotted.
Cholesterol Extraction and Amplex Red Assay. Total cholesterol was extracted from cells using a standard protocol. In brief, mixed glial cells (104-105) were suspended in 500 µl of isopropanol, and then they were sonicated with a microprobe for 10 s. After centrifugation for 15 min at 800g, the clear supernatant was decanted, and an aliquot was taken for cholesterol analysis using Amplex Red cholesterol assay kit (Invitrogen). The supernatant was evaporated to dryness and resuspended in 1x reaction buffer. The pellet was suspended in 0.1 M sodium hydroxide (100 ml), and it was used for protein determination. Total cholesterol was measured in the lipid extract and in serum samples using the Amplex Red cholesterol assay kit (Invitrogen).
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Results |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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), we investigated the effect of inhibiting or supplementing metabolites involved in the mevalonate pathway (Fig. 1A). Similar to conditions observed within the EAE/MS brain (Wolswijk, 2000; Paintlia et al., 2004), proinflammatory cytokines are reported to be detrimental to oligodendrocytes in vitro (Molina-Holgado et al., 2001; Druzhyna et al., 2005). Lovastatin treatment rescued OPs from the deleterious effect of proinflammatory cytokines (Cyt-Mix: IFN-, TNF-, and IL-1β; 10 ng/ml each), and it promoted their proliferation as revealed by NG2+/BrdU+ cell counting in mixed glial cultures (Fig. 1, B and C). FACS analysis indicated a significant increase in NG2+ and O4+ cells at DIV3 and DIV5, respectively, in lovastatin and Cyt-Mix-treated mixed glial cultures compared with those treated with Cyt-Mix only (Fig. 1D). In addition, PDGF-R transcripts were increased significantly in lovastatin and Cyt-Mix-treated mixed glial cells compared with those treated with Cyt-Mix only (Fig. 1E). Cotreatment of Cyt-Mix glial cultures with lovastatin and 0.25 mM mevalonolactone eliminated the observed effect of lovastatin in Cyt-Mix-stimulated mixed glial cultures (Fig. 1, C-E). The dose of mevalonolactone used in the study to abolish the effect of lovastatin rescues isoprenoid function, whereas cholesterol synthesis remains insignificant (Cole et al., 2005). Note that mixed glial cells treated with lovastatin only had significantly greater OP proliferation compared with untreated cells, but this was reversed by mevalonolactone cotreatment as demonstrated by NG2+/BrdU+ counting (Fig. 1C), NG2+ and O4+ typing (Fig. 1D), and PDGF-R transcript level (Fig. 1E). Note that experimental dose of lovastatin either 1 or 2 µM did not alter total cholesterol in cells (Fig. 1F). Lactate dehydrogenase release and trypan blue exclusion assays revealed significant cell death in mixed glial cultures stimulated with Cyt-Mix compared with controls or lovastatin and Cyt-Mix-treated cells as an indicator of loss of developing OPs under inflammatory disease conditions (data not shown).
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; Liao, 2002). Thus, to investigate the underlying mechanism of survival and proliferation of OPs by lovastatin against inflammatory insult, we treated Cyt-Mix-stimulated mixed glial cells with lovastatin and either isoprenoids (farnesyl-PP and all-trans geranylgeranyl-PP) or exogenous cholesterol in combination or individually. Similar to mevalonolactone, cotreatment of lovastatin with all-trans geranylgeranyl-PP also reversed the effect of lovastatin in Cyt-Mix-stimulated mixed glial cultures as shown by quantification of NG2+ and O4+ populations (Fig. 2A). This effect of lovastatin in Cyt-Mix-stimulated mixed glial cultures was not reversed by either farnesyl-PP or exogenous cholesterol cotreatment (Fig. 2A). These findings were further validated by using inhibitors of isoprenoid transferases and downstream effectors of Rho family GTPases (Fig. 1A). Note that the observed effect of lovastatin in Cyt-Mix-stimulated mixed glial cultures was mimicked by GGTI-298, C3 exoenzyme (inhibitor of Rho family functions), and Y27632 (ROCK inhibitor), but not by FTI-277 (Fig. 2B). Similar to lovastatin alone, GGTI-298, Y27632, and C3 exoenzyme also significantly increased NG2+ and O4+ populations in treated mixed glial cells not stimulated with Cyt-Mix compared with controls, but not with FTI-277 (Fig. 2B).
Inhibition of the Geranylgeranyl-PP Arm of the Mevalonate Pathway by Lovastatin Promoted Terminal Differentiation of OPs in Mixed Glial Cultures Stimulated with Cyt-Mix. Because O4+ are reported to be more vulnerable to inflammatory insult than pre-OPs as observed in a periventricular model (Back et al., 2002), we next treated mixed glial cultures grown until DIV4 to determine the effect of inflammatory insult on differentiating late-OPs. FACS analysis revealed an increase in the population of O4+ cells of OL-lineage in mixed glial cultures at DIV4 (data not shown). Cyt-Mix-stimulation inhibited the survival and differentiation of OPs into myelin-forming OLs as depicted by a decrease in the number of MBP+ OLs (Fig. 3A). The degree of OL differentiation was scored as low, medium, or high depending upon the complexity of OL extensions (processes) as shown in Fig. 3B, inset. There was a significant increase in both survival and differentiation of OLs as revealed by degree of arborization in lovastatin and Cyt-Mix-treated mixed glial cells compared with those treated with Cyt-Mix only (Fig. 3, A and B). MBP transcripts were also significantly increased in lovastatin and Cyt-Mix-stimulated mixed glial cells compared with those treated with Cyt-Mix only (Fig. 3C). Likewise, the population of MBP+ OLs was increased significantly in lovastatin and Cyt-Mix-treated mixed glial cells compared with those treated with Cyt-Mix only (Fig. 3D). Cotreatment of lovastatin with mevalonolactone reversed the effect of lovastatin in Cyt-Mix-stimulated mixed glial cultures (Fig. 3, A-D). Note that mixed glial cells treated with lovastatin alone had significantly greater OL differentiation as shown by degree of arborization (Fig. 3B), level of MBP transcripts (Fig. 3C), and the population of MBP+ OLs (Fig. 3D) compared with controls. This was reversed by mevalonolactone cotreatment (Fig. 3, A-D). Similar to mevalonolactone, cotreatment of lovastatin with all-trans geranylgeranyl-PP reversed the effect of lovastatin in Cyt-Mix-stimulated mixed glial cells, but that reversal was not evident with farnesyl-PP cotreatment (Fig. 3E). Lovastatin-induced effects were mimicked by treatment of Cyt-Mix-stimulated mixed glial cells with GGTI-298, Y27632, and C3 exoenzyme (Fig. 3E). No significant change in the MBP+ cell population was observed in Cyt-Mix-stimulated mixed glial cells treated or untreated with FTI-277 (Fig. 3E).
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), we next measured transcripts of some of the reference neurotrophic factors (i.e., IGF-1, PDGF, and CNTF) in similarly treated mixed glial cells. Cyt-Mix-stimulated mixed glial cultures had significantly less IGF-1 (Fig. 4A), PDGF (Fig. 4B), and CNTF (Fig. 4C) transcripts compared with controls. In contrast, lovastatin treatment significantly blocked this decrease in neurotrophic factor transcripts in Cyt-Mix-stimulated mixed glial cells, and the effect was reversed by mevalonolactone cotreatment (Fig. 4, A-C). Likewise, the effect of lovastatin was reversed by cotreatment with all-trans geranylgeranyl-PP in Cyt-Mix-stimulated mixed glial cultures, but this did not occur with farnesyl-PP (Fig. 4, A-C) or exogenous cholesterol (data not shown). Furthermore, lovastatin induced effects were mimicked by GGTI-298, Y27632, and C3 exoenzyme in Cyt-Mix-stimulated mixed glial cultures, but not by FTI-277 (Fig. 4, A-C). Lovastatin Altered the Activity of Rho/Ras Family GTPase in Glial Cells. Next, we determined the activity of Rho/Ras family GTPases in lovastatin-treated glial cells by analyzing the distribution of Rho/Ras family GTPases in the cytosolic/membranal fractions. As expected, lovastatin treatment altered the membranal/cytoplasmic distribution of RhoA, cdc42/Rac1 and Ras small GTPases in primary OLs (Fig. 5A). Lovastatin induced an increase in the accumulation of RhoA and cdc42/Rac1 GTPases in the cytoplasm than membrane of treated primary OLs, and this effect was reversed by both mevalonolactone and all-trans geranylgeranyl-PP cotreatment, but not by farnesyl-PP (Fig. 5A). In support to these findings, lovastatin induced effect on RhoA distribution in primary OLs was mimicked by both GGTI-298, but not by FTI-277 (Fig. 5B). Furthermore, lovastatin induced an increase in the accumulation of Ras GTPases in the cytoplasm than membrane in treated primary OLs and that was reversed by farnesyl-PP and mevalonolactone, but not by all-trans geranylgeranyl-PP (Fig. 5A). Similarly treated primary microglia (Fig. 5C) and astrocytes (Fig. 5D) also showed a decrease in the RhoA activity as indicated by its accumulation in the cytoplasm. Note that lovastatin treatment reversed the increase in RhoA activity in both Cyt-Mix-stimulated microglia (Fig. 5C) and astrocytes (Fig. 5D).
Inhibition of HMG-CoA Reductase by Lovastatin Impeded Demyelination and Promotes Myelin Repair in Recovering EAE Animals. Parallel to in vitro findings, EAE disease was induced in Lewis female rats and treated with lovastatin alone or cotreated with intermediate products of the mevalonate pathway [i.e., mevalonolactone and farnesol (alcohol precursor to farnesyl-PP; Fig. 1A)]. Treatment began in established EAE animals on peak clinical day (12 dpi), with clinical scores 3.0. In this EAE model, we previously showed severe cellular infiltration and demyelination in the lumbar region of the SC on peak clinical day (Paintlia et al., 2005). Note that 2 mg/kg lovastatin treatment—when initiated on the peak clinical day—markedly reduced the clinical symptoms of the disease and improved recovery as evidenced by clinical examination (Fig. 6A). Coadministration of lovastatin and mevalonolactone (5 mg/kg i.p.) abolished the observed effect of lovastatin in recovering EAE animals (Fig. 6B). Coadministration of farnesol with lovastatin did not reverse the effect of lovastatin in recovering EAE animals (Fig. 6C). Note that EAE animals treated with mevalonolactone or farnesol alone had more exacerbated EAE than that observed in vehicle-treated animals as evidenced by clinical examination (Fig. 6, B and C). Histological examination by luxol fast blue (LFB) and hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining revealed a significant reduction in demyelination and cellular infiltration in the lateral funiculi of SC of lovastatin-treated recovering EAE animals compared with EAE animals on peak clinical day (Fig. 6, D and E). In addition, LFB staining revealed an induction of myelin repair as reflected by light blue-stained regions with lesser infiltration (white arrowhead) in the lateral funiculi of SC of recovering EAE animals (Fig. 6E). Coadministration of lovastatin with mevalonolactone reversed the observed effect of lovastatin in recovering EAE animals (Fig. 6, D and E). In contrast, farnesol when cotreated with lovastatin did not reverse the observed effect of lovastatin in recovering EAE animals (Fig. 6, D and E). Note that EAE animals treated with either mevalonolactone or farnesol had more severe cellular infiltration and demyelination compared with those animals treated with vehicle (data not shown). Note that cellular infiltration was still greater in the SC of recovering vehicle-treated EAE animals compared with animals observed on peak clinical day (Fig. 6, D and E), irrespective of clinical scores (Fig. 6A).
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R and SOX10, a transcription factor), and OL-specific proteins (i.e., MBP and MyT1-L, a transcription factor) were significantly increased by lovastatin treatment compared with vehicle-treated recovering EAE animals (Fig. 7, A-D). In contrast, coadministration of mevalonolactone with lovastatin reversed the effect of lovastatin in recovering EAE animals (Fig. 7, A-D). Coadministration of farnesol with lovastatin did not reverse the effects of lovastatin in recovering EAE animals (Fig. 7, A-D). Note that vehicle-treated recovering EAE animals had an increased transcripts for OP-specific proteins, but not for OL-specific proteins compared with that observed on peak clinical day (Fig. 6, A-D), which is an indicative of induction of myelin repair. Furthermore, immunoblotting revealed a significant increase in the level of MBP isoforms in the SC of lovastatin-treated recovering EAE animals compared with those animals treated with vehicle (Fig. 7E). This lovastatin mediated increase in level of MBP was reversed by mevalonolactone coadministration, but not with farnesol in recovering EAE animals (Fig. 7E). An observed reduction of the level of all isoforms of MBP on peak clinical day reflects myelin degradation (demyelination), and its normalization during recovery phase of EAE upon treatment reflects myelin repair (remyelination) compared with controls (Fig. 7E). This lovastatin-mediated increase in myelin repair in recovering EAE animals was further supported by immunohistochemical analysis of the SC with anti-MBP antibodies (Fig. 7F). Note that the restoration of SC white matter integrity by lovastatin in recovering EAE animals was associated with the attenuation of cellular infiltration (Fig. 7F). This effect of lovastatin was reversed by cotreatment of lovastatin with mevalonolactone, but not by farnesol (Fig. 7F).
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). Histological examination with LFB and H&E staining showed a reduction in cellular infiltration and demyelination in the lateral funiculi of SC from GGTI-298- and hydroxylfasudil-treated recovering EAE animals, which was similar to lovastatin-treated EAE animals (Fig. 8, D and E). In addition, myelin repair was enhanced by GGTI-298 or hydroxylfasudil—similar to lovastatin—as indicated by LFB staining of lateral funiculi of SC (Fig. 8, D and E). Moreover, L-744,832-treated EAE animals showed more cellular infiltration and demyelination in the SC compared with lovastatin-treated EAE animals (Fig. 8, D and E).
To further assess the induction of myelin repair as indicated by LFB staining of SC sections, we measured transcripts associated with myelin repair. Transcripts of OP-specific proteins (i.e., PDGF-R and SOX10), and OL-specific proteins (i.e., MBP and MyT1-L) were significantly increased in the SC of recovering EAE animals treated with GGTI-298 or hydroxylfasudil compared with vehicle-treated EAE animals (Fig. 9, A-D). Similar to vehicle-treated recovering EAE animals, a significant change in OP-specific transcripts not in OL-specific transcripts was observed in the SC of L-744,832 treated recovering EAE animals compared with animals on peak clinical day (Fig. 9, A-D). Likewise, protein level of MBP (Fig. 9E, inset) was significantly elevated in the SC of recovering EAE animals treated with GGTI-298 or hydroxylfasudil, compared with vehicle-treated EAE animals (Fig. 9E). Similar to vehicle-treated EAE animals, L-744,832 showed no significant change in the level of MBP in treated EAE animals compared with that observed on the peak clinical day (Fig. 9E). Immunohistochemical analysis of SC with anti-MBP antibodies further revealed that the integrity of SC white matter was restored by both GGTI-298 and hydroxylfasudil in recovering EAE animals, but not by L-744,832 (Fig. 9F).
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β and IGF-1 in the serum of recovering EAE animals compared with those treated with vehicle (Fig. 10, A and B). Conversely, coadministration of lovastatin with mevalonolactone reversed the effect of lovastatin in recovering EAE animals, and this did not occur with farnesol coadministration (Fig. 10, A and B). Similar to lovastatin, both GGTI-298-and hydroxylfasudil-treated recovering EAE animals had a significant increase of these neurotrophic factors in serum compared with those animals treated with vehicle (Fig. 10, A and B). Vehicle-treated recovering EAE animals, however, had more secretion of these neurotrophic factors than that observed on the peak clinical day, but it was less than those animals treated with lovastatin (Fig. 10, A and B). Next, to determine the effect of lovastatin on reduction of total cholesterol in treated EAE animals, we measured total cholesterol in the serum and SC tissues of treated EAE animals. Note that no change in total cholesterol level was observed in either serum or SC tissues of EAE animals treated with lovastatin alone or with aforementioned agents compared with controls (Fig. 10, C and D).
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Immunohistochemistry of SC sections showed that CNTF immunostaining was relatively decreased with a corresponding increase in GFAP+ astrocytes (marker of astrogliosis) in the SC of EAE animals that was observed on the peak clinical day (Fig. 11, EAE-peak). Lovastatin treatment enhanced CNTF immunostaining in glial cells, especially astrocytes (GFAP+) in the SC of recovering EAE animals compared with those animals treated with vehicle (Fig. 11). A lovastatin-induced increase in CNTF-immunostaining in the SC of recovering EAE animals was mimicked by both GGTI-298 and hydroxylfasudil, but not by L-744,832 (Fig. 11). This effect of lovastatin on CNTF expression in the SC of recovering EAE animals was reversed by mevalonolactone coadministration, but not by farnesol (data not shown).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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; Paintlia et al., 2004). A small open-label clinical trial of simvastatin in relapsing-remitting MS patients showed reduction of new gadolinium-enhancing lesions by 44% (Vollmer et al., 2004). Likewise, atorvastatin, a related drug was promising in rheumatoid arthritis patients (McCarey et al., 2004). The disease-modifying effects of statins in the animal model of MS are attributed to the following: inhibition of cellular infiltration (Paintlia et al., 2004), activation of immune cells (i.e., macrophages, T cells, and endothelial cells) (Youssef et al., 2002; Paintlia et al., 2004), breakdown of the blood-brain barrier (Greenwood et al., 2003), and neurodegeneration (Paintlia et al., 2005, 2006b).
The present study is the extension of our previous report documenting preservation of OPs and induction of myelin repair (remyelination) by lovastatin in EAE animals (Paintlia et al., 2005). Because statin-induced pleiotropic effects are known to be mediated via reduction of isoprenoids rather than cholesterol (Cole et al., 2005), we anticipated that lovastatin may be altering in situ level of isoprenoids in glial cells during the recovery phase of EAE. Our in vitro studies established that lovastatin rescues OPs from inflammatory insult and promotes their proliferation and differentiation along with induction of a promyelinating milieu in mixed glial cultures. To replicate in vitro data, EAE animals exhibiting demyelination were treated with lovastatin and mevalonate pathway-related compounds, commencing on peak clinical day of the disease, which is characterized by a compromised blood brain-barrier and severe cellular infiltration that is responsible for activation of resident glial cells in the SC. Lovastatin promoted the recovery rate via enhanced myelin repair and induction of a promyelinating milieu as established by histopathology, immunoblotting, ELISA, and quantitative real-time PCR analyses. These effects of lovastatin both in vitro and in vivo were reversed by cotreatment with exogenous mevalonolactone or all-trans geranylgeranyl-PP, but not by farnesyl-PP or cholesterol suggesting that lovastatin-induced effects in glial cells are mediated by depletion of geranylgeranyl-PP as opposed to cholesterol. This notion was supported by the mimicking of lovastatin-induced effects both in vitro and in vivo by inhibitors of geranygeranyl transferase, Rho kinase and Rho family functions, but not by farnesyl transferase. This study provides evidence that specific depletion of geranylgeranyl-PP in glial cells by lovastatin promotes myelin repair (remyelination) via enhanced survival, proliferation, and differentiation of OPs and induction of a promyelinating milieu in the CNS. Note that these observed effects of statins in glial cells are in addition to their immunomodulatory effects observed in immune cells (Walters et al., 2002; Greenwood et al., 2003; Dunn et al., 2006; Veillard et al., 2006).
Statins are known to block the production of isoprenoids required for post-translational modification of Ras/Rho family GTPases involved in the development of immune cells (Ghittoni et al., 2007). Statins-induced alterations in cellular isoprenoids and modulation of Rho family functions by depletion of geranylgeranyl-PP are reported to inhibit the migration and recruitment of mononuclear cells into the CNS (Walters et al., 2002; Greenwood et al., 2003) as well as activation of macrophages and endothelial cells (Veillard et al., 2006). In addition, statin-induced depletion of isoprenoids (i.e., farnesyl-PP and geranylgeranyl-PP) mediates its immunomodulatory effects with respect to the Th1 to Th2 shift in EAE (Dunn et al., 2006). Consistent with these studies, the observed rapid recovery of EAE animals exhibiting cellular infiltration and demyelination by lovastatin is attributed to the inhibition of cellular infiltration and activation of immune cells. The reversal of lovastatin-induced effects on myelin repair/remyelination by mevalonolactone, but not by farnesol, suggests that the inhibition of the geranylgeranyl-PP arm of the mevalonate pathway is crucial for lovastatin-induced effects in glial cells. The depletion of farnesyl-PP by statins is known to hinder the proliferation of Th1 cells (Dunn et al., 2006), because the incorporation of this metabolite into farnesylated protein (i.e., Ras by farnesol) enhances the proliferation of immune cells, resulting in severe EAE and demyelination. No reversal of lovastatin-induced effects by farnesol or farnesyl-PP cotreatment was observed in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that lovastatin most likely limits the conversion of these isoprenoids into geranylgeranyl-PP as a result of depletion of isopenetyl-PP in cells (Fig. 1A, mevalonate pathway). Consistent with these effects of statins on immune cells, the ability of lovastatin to lower in situ isoprenoids protects OPs from inflammatory insult in glial cells (microglia and astrocytes). In addition, specific depletion of geranylgeranyl-PP and inactivation of Rho family GTPases by lovastatin in glial cells attenuates their activation and their inflammatory response in the CNS. In line with this, lovastatin was demonstrated to attenuate β-amyloid induced activation of microglia in the Alzheimer brain via inactivation of RhoA GTPases (Cordle and Landreth, 2005).
Post-translational modification of a superfamily of small GTPase by isoprenylation are reported to play an essential role in the cellular processes relating to cell growth, differentiation, cytoskeleton function, and vesicle trafficking (Ridley and Hall, 1992; Nobes and Hall, 1995). The observed effects of lovastatin on terminal differentiation of OPs are consistent with reports, suggesting that statins exert their effect via inhibition of the mevalonate pathway and reduction of isoprenoids (Miron et al., 2007). Blocking the isoprenylation of Rho family GTPases (i.e., RhoA) causes its accumulation in the cytosol and hence its inactivation, which prevents ROCK signaling and cell proliferation (Wolfrum et al., 2004). In line with this, statins are shown to induce cell differentiation and process extensions in OPs via RhoA inactivation (Miron et al., 2007). In agreement with these findings, an observed increase in differentiation of OPs by lovastatin and inhibitors of geranylgeranyl transferase, ROCK, and Rho family GTPase functions is suggestive of inhibition of RhoA family functions in OPs. This was further supported by treatment of primary OLs, microglia, and astrocytes with lovastatin and metabolites of the mevalonate pathway (Fig. 5). This suggests that lovastatin-mediated depletion of geranylgeranyl-PP is crucial for OL development and survival rather than farnesyl-PP under neuroinflammatory disease conditions. However, cholesterol is the major component in lipid rafts, and receptor signaling through lipid rafts is crucial for OL differentiation. We did not observe any change in total cholesterol in lovastatin-treated mixed glial cells or in recovering EAE animals, supporting the concept that the statin effect is mediated via lowering of isoprenoids rather than cholesterol. On the contrary, prolonged treatment (4 days) of purified OPs with simvastatin has been shown to induce cell death and that was rescued by cholesterol or isoprenoid cotreatment (Miron et al., 2007). Consistent with previous studies (Simons et al., 1998; Cole et al., 2005), we postulate that exogenous cholesterol available in the media or in the animal diet might restores the lovastatin-induced depletion of cholesterol. In addition, mixed glial cultures likely have advantages over purified cultures of OPs as observed in neuron and astrocyte cocultures treated with statins (März et al., 2007).
Brain glial cells secret neurotrophic factors important for proliferation and differentiation of neurons and OPs (Barres et al., 1993). Consistent with these studies, the observed increase in secretion and expression of neurotrophic factors by lovastatin treatment both in vitro and in vivo suggests that lovastatin promotes a promyelinating milieu via inhibition of Rho family GTPases in glial cells. These results are in agreement with our previous report documenting induction of a promyelinating milieu in the SC of lovastatin-treated recovering EAE animals (Paintlia et al., 2005). Neurotrophic factors are important for the survival and fate of glial cells. For example, IGF-1 and PDGF are known to promote the survival of neurons and OPs (Fernandez-Galaz et al., 1997). Likewise, another neurotrophic factor, CNTF, promotes the survival of both neurons and OLs (Linker et al., 2002). Note that Th2-biased lymphocytes are also known to secrete neurotrophic factors (i.e., brain-derived neurotrophic factor and leukemia inhibitory factor) (Aharoni et al., 2005; Vanderlocht et al., 2006). In agreement with these results, an observed increase in OP proliferation by lovastatin both in vitro and in vivo conditions suggests that the induction of a promyelinating milieu is attributed to both immune and glial cells. It provides evidence that the immunomodulatory effect of lovastatin is beneficial to the survival, proliferation, and differentiation of OPs attributed to the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines (Molina-Holgado et al., 2001; Paintlia et al., 2006a) and neurotrophic factors (Aharoni et al., 2005; Vanderlocht et al., 2006). In addition, these neurotrophic factors are reported to have ameliorating effects on EAE (Linker et al., 2002).
In conclusion, we report that the depletion of geranylgeranyl-PP is crucial in glial cells for the proliferation, terminal differentiation and survival of OPs in ameliorating EAE via inhibition of Rho family functions. Although the direct effect of lovastatin on glial cells versus immune cells in the in vivo model is not discernible due to its limitations, our in vitro studies and existing literature reports support our hypothesis that statins alter in situ level of isoprenoids and thus Rho family functions in glial cells. This is the first report to describe the underlying mechanism(s) of statin-induced anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects in EAE animals. From these observations, we suggest that statins have therapeutic potential in MS in addition to possible uses in other related CNS-demyelinating diseases.
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A.S.P. and M.K.P. contributed equally to this study.
ABBREVIATIONS: MS, multiple sclerosis; OL, oligodendrocyte(s); OP, oligodendrocyte progenitor; CNS, central nervous system; EAE, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis; PP, pyrophosphate; GGTI, geranylgeranyl transferase inhibitor; FTI, farnesyl transferase inhibitor; BrdU, 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine; IFN, interferon; TNF, tumor necrotic factor; IL, interleukin; NG2, chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan-NG2; O4, late OP marker; MBP, myelin basic protein; GFAP, glial fibrillary acidic protein; CNTF, ciliary neurotrophic factor; Cyt-Mix, cytokine mixture; FITC, fluorescein isothiocyanate; DIV, days in vitro; FACS, fluorescence-activated cell sorting; PBS, phosphated-buffered saline; CFA, complete Freud's adjuvant; dpi, day after immunization; SC, spinal cord; PCR, polymerase chain reaction; PDGF, platelet-derived growth factor; SOX10, sex determining region Y-box 10; MyT1-L, myelin transcription factor 1-like; IGF, insulin like growth factor; GAPDH, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; ROCK, rho kinase; LFB, luxol fast blue; H&E, hematoxylin and eosin; Th, T-helper; LOV, lovastatin; MEV, mevalonolactone; C3-EXZ, C3-exoenzyme; CTL, controls; H-FSL, hydroxyfasudil; L-74432, (2S)-2-[[(2S)-2-[(2S,3S)-2-[(2R)-2-amino-3-mercaptopropyl]amino]-3-methylpentyl]oxy]-1-oxo-3-phenylpropyl]amino]-4-(methylsulfonyl)-butanoic acid 1-methylethyl ester; Y27632, N-(4-pyridyl)-4-(1-aminoethyl)-cyclohexanecarboxamide, dihydrochloride.
Address correspondence to: Dr. Inderjit Singh, Department of Pediatrics, Darby Children Research Institute, Medical University of South Carolina, 173 Ashley Ave., Charleston, SC 29425. E-mail: singhi{at}musc.edu
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