Journal of Molecular Biology
Insights into Protein–Protein Binding by Binding Free Energy Calculation and Free Energy Decomposition for the Ras–Raf and Ras–RalGDS Complexes
Introduction
The capability of proteins to form stable complexes is of fundamental importance for a wide range of biological processes, including hormone–receptor interactions, proteinase inhibition, antibody–antigen interactions, signal transduction and enzyme allostery.1 Perturbation of protein–protein interactions can result in diseases such as sickle-cell anaemia2 or the formation of tumors.3 Therefore, a promising way to interfere with biological processes is the control of protein–protein interactions by means of small molecules that modulate the formation of protein–protein complexes. Recent results demonstrate the feasibility of this approach in principle.4., 5., 6., 7., 8., 9., 10., 11. However, our limited understanding of the energetics and dynamics of the mutual binding of two proteins presents a severe limitation for the rational design of small, non-peptide inhibitors to modulate protein–protein interactions.
Investigations of crystallographically determined protein–protein complexes, thermodynamic experiments and mutational studies have contributed most to the current understanding of protein–protein interactions.1., 12., 13., 14. Of particular interest are properties of binding interfaces of hetero-complexes, which are often made and broken according to the environment or external factors, and involve proteins that must exist independently.12 Results from heat capacity measurements suggest that hydrophobic interactions are less dominant in protein–protein association15 than in protein folding,16 which points to an increased influence of (long-range) electrostatic interactions across the binding interface. Mutational studies, mostly alanine scanning mutagenesis, on protein–protein interfaces have revealed that a small number of amino acid residues in contact across the interface often yield a significant contribution to the free energy of binding.1., 17., 18., 19., 20. These occurrences of “hotspots”10., 21. thus lead to a distinction between the “structural epitope” (i.e. the interface between proteins as defined by geometrical considerations) and the “functional epitope”.22
Computational and theoretical methods provide a molecular view of the structural and energetic consequences of mutations, and can address the origin of binding in terms of contributions from electrostatic and van der Waals interactions and changes in solvation.23 Furthermore, rigorous computational approaches may be used as a means of guiding new experimental investigations.24 Recently, it has been recognized that mutations may perturb the complex (as generally assumed), as well as the unbound states.25 In the latter case, without additional structural information, interpreting energetic consequences of the mutations in terms of changes in binding interactions will thus be misleading. In contrast, virtual mutagenesis employing thermodynamic cycles26 can (in principle) provide a full description of structural and energetic influences due to mutations on the bound and unbound ensembles.
The systems we examine are the complexes between human H-Ras (Ras) and the Ras-binding domain of C-Raf1 (Raf) as well as between Ras and the Ras-interacting domain of RalGDS (RalGDS). Ras is a GTP-hydrolyzing protein (GTPase, 21 kDa) that acts as central switch in the regulation of cell proliferation and differentiation.27 The active and inactive states of Ras are coupled to the binding of GTP or GDP to the protein, respectively.3 Exchange of the guanine nucleotide induces conformational transitions mainly in two regions that have been called switch I (residues 30–37) and switch II (residues 60–76). Switch I overlaps with what has been called the effector region (residues 32–40), which is involved in interactions with the effectors.28
After activation by “upstream” signals of the signal transduction cascade, Ras itself activates a cascade of protein kinases,29 the first of which is the “downstream” effector Raf.30 The identification of other interaction partners (such as RalGDS31 or phosphatidyl-inositol-3′-kinase32) has led to the conclusion that activated Ras simultaneously induces more than one signaling pathway.3., 33. The fact that permanently activated Ras is one of the most frequent oncogenes, it is found in 30% of all human tumors,34 underlines the importance of understanding its interactions with downstream effectors.
Molecular structures for the unbound proteins35., 36., 37., 38. as well as for Ras–RalGDS39., 40. or complexes closely related to Ras–Raf41., 42. have been determined either by X-ray crystallography or by NMR spectroscopy. They show that the Ras-effector interactions involve mainly an inter-protein β-sheet, resulting in interface sizes of 1200–1300 Å.2., 3., 39. With respect to both effectors, the interaction sites on Ras mutually overlap to a large extent, but RalGDS is rotated by ≈35° when viewed from the direction of the Ras moiety compared to Raf, resulting in a shift of interaction contacts towards the switch I and switch II region of Ras.39 For the Ras–RalGDS case, comparison of the components of the complex structure with the unbound molecules indicates small (<0.5 Å rmsd of Cα atoms) or moderate (1.5 Å rmsd of Cα atoms) changes of the protein structures upon binding. It was also found in the complex with Raf, that one of two nearly equally populated states (“state 2”) of free, GTP-bound Ras with different conformations of the loop L2 region (in particular Y32) is stabilized.43., 44.
Although Raf is the best characterized Ras effector from mammalian cells in terms of biological relevance as well as structural detail,45 it has not been possible to co-crystallize full-length Raf with Ras or Ras-related proteins but only the independently folding domain from the conserved region 1 known as the Ras-binding domain (RBD), which has been investigated in this study. Although binding of the effector region of Ras to the RBD is the major site of GTP-dependent binding, there is clear evidence that contacts between Ras and Raf outside the RBD contribute to binding and kinase activation.46 Along these lines, the precise molecular mechanism for Raf activation is not fully understood. The question of whether a recruitment of Raf by Ras is sufficient for activation with Ras acting as an allosteric regulator, or whether additional events such as phosphorylation by membrane-bound kinases or a transphosphorylation by dimerized Raf itself is responsible, has not been resolved.43., 45., 47. It is consistently proposed, however, that Raf activation requires a structural change from an inactive conformation of the protein being folded between regulatory and kinase domains to an activated, open form.45., 47. Together with the structural data, thermodynamic binding data48 for wild-type or mutant Ras and effector proteins provide a solid basis for the validation of calculations.
Ras-effector interactions have been investigated repeatedly by means of theoretical methods. Among others, studies have included molecular dynamics (MD) simulations on Ras or Rap-1A bound to Raf aimed at identification of effector domains in the Raf protein49., 50. or only of Raf to investigate conformational effects of the R89K mutation.51 Zeng et al.52 performed alchemical free energy calculations on the R89K mutant of Raf, while Muegge et al.53 concentrated mainly on electrostatic contributions to the Rap-1A–Raf interaction.
Here, (absolute) free energies of protein–protein binding have been computed with the molecular mechanics (MM)-generalized Born surface area (GBSA) approach.54., 55. In this approach, gas-phase energies, solvation free energies, and entropic contributions are summed and averaged over snapshots from MD trajectories. The related MM-Poisson–Boltzmann (PB) SA approach has been applied to compare relative stabilities of different conformations of nucleic acids,55 to identify correctly folded proteins,56 and to estimate binding affinities of small molecules binding to proteins.57., 58., 59. It has been used to predict the effects of amino acid mutations on binding affinities.60., 61., 62. More recently, electrostatic contributions to solvation free energies have been calculated by GB models.55., 63., 64. Since GB is significantly faster than PB, the former is an attractive alternative. In addition, GB allows one to decompose the contributions to binding free energies on a per-residue basis which provides an interesting, structurally non-perturbing alternative to the usual “computational alanine scanning” approach.60 Although a similar idea has been presented for small-molecule solvation,65 to the best of our knowledge this is the first time that GB has been used for such an approach in the context of macromolecular association.
In this work, 5 ns MD simulations were carried out for the unbound proteins Ras, Raf, and RalGDS as well as for the complexes Ras–Raf and Ras–RalGDS. For 150 snapshots extracted from the last 3 ns of the stable trajectories, energy and entropy contributions were calculated and averaged. Energy decomposition on a per-residue basis showed convincing consistency with experimentally determined mutagenesis data. In addition, residues apart from the binding interface could be identified to contribute to the protein–protein binding (hotspots). In the Raf case, particularly, these hotspots form interaction pathways that originate in the binding interface and extend through the protein structure. Possible implications for an allosteric activation of the effector molecule are discussed. The results of this study indicate clearly the significance of the applied computational method to provide insight into binding thermodynamics of proteins on an atomic level, although limitations of the current methodology still exist.
Section snippets
Structures from MD simulations
For the systems Raf, RalGDS, Ras, Ras–Raf, and Ras–RalGDS, MD simulations with the particle mesh Ewald (PME) method were carried out in explicit water for 5 ns. For each trajectory, the time-series of the rmsd of backbone atoms from the experimental starting structure is given in Figure 1.
For all systems but Raf, these rmsd values vary between 0.7 Å and 2.0 Å. The rmsd values with respect to all protein atoms remain below 2.3 Å during the course of the simulations for these four cases. These
Conclusion
Absolute binding free energies have been calculated for the association of Ras with Raf or RalGDS, which are in fair agreement with experimental data. Following the MM-GBSA approach, gas-phase energies and entropy contributions by the solute have been complemented by solvation free energies obtained from a generalized Born model. The analysis of energetic contributions to the (absolute) binding free energy has revealed that van der Waals interactions together with non-polar contributions to the
Molecular dynamics simulations
All simulations were performed with the AMBER 7 suite of programs114 together with the Cornell et al. force-field.115 Bonded parameters for the triphosphate moiety of GTP were taken from Leach & Klein116 and atomic partial charges for GTP4− were derived using the RESP procedure.117 Non-bonded parameters for Mg2+ were taken from Aqvist118 and were adapted to the AMBER combining rules. The starting structures for the simulations of the human unbound proteins and complexes were taken from the
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr C. Herrmann (Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Physiology, Dortmund) for providing comprehensive isothermal titration calorimetry data for Ras–Raf and Ras–RalGDS, and Dr A. Onufriev (The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA) for helpful discussions. The present study was supported by NIH grant RR12255. H.G. gratefully acknowledges a Feodor-Lynen fellowship awarded by the Alexander-von-Humboldt foundation, Germany.
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